banner



Home  ›  What Is It Called When You Compare Something To An Animal

What Is It Called When You Compare Something To An Animal

Written By Thursday, June 9, 2022 Add Comment Edit

Attribution of human being course given from other characteristics to annihilation other than a human being beingness

Anthropomorphism is the attribution of human traits, emotions, or intentions to non-human entities.[i] It is considered to exist an innate tendency of human psychology.[two]

Personification is the related attribution of homo form and characteristics to abstract concepts such every bit nations, emotions, and natural forces, such as seasons and atmospheric condition.

Both have aboriginal roots as storytelling and artistic devices, and most cultures have traditional fables with anthropomorphized animals every bit characters. People have also routinely attributed human emotions and behavioral traits to wild too as domesticated animals.[3]

Etymology

Anthropomorphism and anthropomorphization derive from the verb form anthropomorphize,[a] itself derived from the Greek ánthrōpos ( ἄνθρωπος , lit. "human") and morphē ( μορφή , "class"). It is outset attested in 1753, originally in reference to the heresy of applying a human form to the Christian God.[b] [1]

Examples in prehistory

Anthropomorphic "pebble" figures from the 7th millennium BC

From the beginnings of human behavioral modernity in the Upper Paleolithic, near 40,000 years ago, examples of zoomorphic (animal-shaped) works of fine art occur that may stand for the earliest known evidence of anthropomorphism. One of the oldest known is an ivory sculpture, the Löwenmensch figurine, Federal republic of germany, a human being-shaped figurine with the head of a lioness or king of beasts, determined to be about 32,000 years old.[5] [6]

It is non possible to say what these prehistoric artworks represent. A more contempo instance is The Sorcerer, an enigmatic cave painting from the Trois-Frères Cave, Ariège, France: the figure's significance is unknown, but it is usually interpreted as some kind of great spirit or master of the animals. In either example there is an chemical element of anthropomorphism.

This anthropomorphic art has been linked by archaeologist Steven Mithen with the emergence of more systematic hunting practices in the Upper Palaeolithic.[7] He proposes that these are the product of a change in the compages of the human mind, an increasing fluidity betwixt the natural history and social intelligences [ clarification needed ], where anthropomorphism allowed hunters to identify empathetically with hunted animals and meliorate predict their movements.[c]

In religion and mythology

In religion and mythology, anthropomorphism is the perception of a divine being or beings in human form, or the recognition of human qualities in these beings.

Ancient mythologies frequently represented the divine every bit deities with human forms and qualities. They resemble human beings non only in appearance and personality; they exhibited many human behaviors that were used to explain natural phenomena, creation, and historical events. The deities brutal in love, married, had children, fought battles, wielded weapons, and rode horses and chariots. They feasted on special foods, and sometimes required sacrifices of nutrient, beverage, and sacred objects to be made by man beings. Some anthropomorphic deities represented specific human concepts, such as love, war, fertility, dazzler, or the seasons. Anthropomorphic deities exhibited man qualities such as beauty, wisdom, and power, and sometimes human weaknesses such equally greed, hatred, jealousy, and uncontrollable anger. Greek deities such equally Zeus and Apollo frequently were depicted in human form exhibiting both commendable and despicable homo traits. Anthropomorphism in this instance is, more specifically, anthropotheism.[9]

From the perspective of adherents to religions in which humans were created in the class of the divine, the phenomenon may be considered theomorphism, or the giving of divine qualities to humans.

Anthropomorphism has cropped upwards equally a Christian heresy, particularly prominently with the Audians in third century Syria, but besides in fourth century Arab republic of egypt and 10th century Italy.[10] This ofttimes was based on a literal estimation of Genesis 1:27: "Then God created humankind in his image, in the image of God he created them; male person and female he created them".[11]

Criticism

Some religions, scholars, and philosophers objected to anthropomorphic deities. The earliest known criticism was that of the Greek philosopher Xenophanes (570–480 BCE) who observed that people model their gods later on themselves. He argued against the conception of deities every bit fundamentally anthropomorphic:

But if cattle and horses and lions had hands
or could paint with their hands and create works such every bit men do,
horses like horses and cattle like cattle
also would describe the gods' shapes and make their bodies
of such a sort as the grade they themselves have.
...
Ethiopians say that their gods are snub–nosed [ σιμούς ] and black
Thracians that they are pale and red-haired.[12] [d]

Xenophanes said that "the greatest god" resembles homo "neither in course nor in mind".[13]

Both Judaism and Islam reject an anthropomorphic deity, assertive that God is beyond human comprehension. Judaism'south rejection of an anthropomorphic deity grew during the Hasmonean menstruum (circa 300 BCE), when Jewish belief incorporated some Greek philosophy.[1] Judaism's rejection grew further subsequently the Islamic Golden Age in the tenth century, which Maimonides codified in the twelfth century, in his thirteen principles of Jewish religion.[east]

In the Ismaili estimation of Islam, assigning attributes to God as well as negating any attributes from God (via negativa) both authorize as anthropomorphism and are rejected, as God cannot be understood by either assigning attributes to Him or taking attributes abroad from Him. The 10th-century Ismaili philosopher Abu Yaqub al-Sijistani suggested the method of double negation; for example: "God is not existent" followed by "God is not non-real". This glorifies God from whatever understanding or human comprehension.[15]

Hindus practise not reject the concept of a deity in the abstruse unmanifested, but note practical issues. Lord Krishna said in the Bhagavad Gita, Chapter 12, Verse 5, that it is much more difficult for people to focus on a deity every bit the unmanifested than one with course, using anthropomorphic icons (murtis), considering people need to perceive with their senses.[sixteen] [17]

In secular thought, one of the nearly notable criticisms began in 1600 with Francis Bacon, who argued against Aristotle'due south teleology, which alleged that everything behaves as it does in order to achieve some stop, in order to fulfill itself.[18] Bacon pointed out that achieving ends is a human activeness and to aspect it to nature misconstrues it as humanlike.[18] Modern criticisms followed Bacon's ideas such as critiques of Baruch Spinoza and David Hume. The latter, for instance, embedded his arguments in his wider criticism of man religions and specifically demonstrated in what he cited as their "inconsistence" where, on ane paw, the Deity is painted in the most sublime colors but, on the other, is degraded to most human levels by giving him man infirmities, passions, and prejudices.[nineteen] In Faces in the Clouds, anthropologist Stewart Guthrie proposes that all religions are anthropomorphisms that originate in the encephalon'due south tendency to detect the presence or vestiges of other humans in natural phenomena.[20]

Some scholars fence that anthropomorphism overestimates the similarity of humans and nonhumans and therefore could not yield accurate accounts.[21]

In literature

Religious texts

At that place are diverse examples of personification in both the Hebrew Bible and Christian New Testaments, equally well as in the texts of some other religions.

Fables

From the Panchatantra: Rabbit fools Elephant by showing the reflection of the moon

Anthropomorphism, also referred to as personification, is a well established literary device from ancient times. The story of "The Hawk and the Nightingale" in Hesiod's Works and Days preceded Aesop's fables by centuries. Collections of linked fables from Bharat, the Jataka Tales and Panchatantra, likewise employ anthropomorphized animals to illustrate principles of life. Many of the stereotypes of animals that are recognized today, such as the wily play tricks and the proud panthera leo, tin be found in these collections. Aesop's anthropomorphisms were and then familiar by the first century CE that they colored the thinking of at to the lowest degree one philosopher:

And there is some other amuse about him, namely, that he puts animals in a pleasing light and makes them interesting to mankind. For after beingness brought up from childhood with these stories, and after being as it were nursed by them from babyhood, we larn certain opinions of the several animals and think of some of them as royal animals, of others as silly, of others as witty, and others as innocent.

Apollonius noted that the legend was created to teach wisdom through fictions that are meant to be taken as fictions, contrasting them favorably with the poets' stories of the deities that are sometimes taken literally. Aesop, "past announcing a story which everyone knows not to be true, told the truth by the very fact that he did not merits to exist relating real events".[22] The same consciousness of the fable as fiction is to be plant in other examples across the world, one instance beingness a traditional Ashanti way of beginning tales of the anthropomorphic trickster-spider Anansi: "Nosotros exercise not really mean, we do non actually mean that what nosotros are about to say is truthful. A story, a story; allow it come, permit it become."[23]

Fairy tales

Anthropomorphic motifs have been common in fairy tales from the primeval ancient examples prepare in a mythological context to the great collections of the Brothers Grimm and Perrault. The Tale of Two Brothers (Arab republic of egypt, 13th century BCE) features several talking cows and in Cupid and Psyche (Rome, 2d century CE) Zephyrus, the w current of air, carries Psyche away. Afterwards an ant feels sad for her and helps her in her quest.

Modern literature

From The Emperor'south Rout (1831)

Edifice on the popularity of fables and fairy tales, children's literature began to emerge in the nineteenth century with works such as Alice'due south Adventures in Wonderland (1865) by Lewis Carroll, The Adventures of Pinocchio (1883) by Carlo Collodi and The Jungle Volume (1894) by Rudyard Kipling, all employing anthropomorphic elements. This continued in the twentieth century with many of the nearly popular titles having anthropomorphic characters,[24] examples existence The Tale of Peter Rabbit (1901) and later on books by Beatrix Potter;[f] The Wind in the Willows by Kenneth Grahame (1908); Winnie-the-Pooh (1926) and The Business firm at Pooh Corner (1928) past A. A. Milne; and The Panthera leo, the Witch, and the Wardrobe (1950) and the subsequent books in The Chronicles of Narnia series by C. S. Lewis.

In many of these stories the animals tin can exist seen every bit representing facets of human personality and character.[26] As John Rowe Townsend remarks, discussing The Jungle Book in which the male child Mowgli must rely on his new friends the bear Baloo and the blackness panther Bagheera, "The world of the jungle is in fact both itself and our world likewise".[26] A notable work aimed at an adult audience is George Orwell's Creature Farm, in which all the chief characters are anthropomorphic animals. Non-animal examples include Rev.W Awdry'south children's stories of Thomas the Tank Engine and other anthropomorphic locomotives.

The fantasy genre developed from mythological, fairy tale, and Romance motifs[27] sometimes have anthropomorphic animals equally characters. The all-time-selling examples of the genre are The Hobbit [28] (1937) and The Lord of the Rings [g] (1954–1955), both by J. R. R. Tolkien, books peopled with talking creatures such as ravens, spiders, and the dragon Smaug and a multitude of anthropomorphic goblins and elves. John D. Rateliff calls this the "Doctor Dolittle Theme" in his book The History of the Hobbit [30] and Tolkien saw this anthropomorphism as closely linked to the emergence of human language and myth: "...The starting time men to talk of 'trees and stars' saw things very differently. To them, the world was alive with mythological beings... To them the whole of creation was 'myth-woven and elf-patterned'."[31]

Richard Adams developed a distinctive take on anthropomorphic writing in the 1970s: his debut novel, Watership Down (1972), featured rabbits that could talk—with their ain distinctive linguistic communication (Lapine) and mythology—and included a constabulary-land warren, Efrafa. Despite this, Adams attempted to ensure his characters' beliefs mirrored that of wild rabbits, engaging in fighting, copulating and defecating, drawing on Ronald Lockley'due south study The Private Life of the Rabbit equally enquiry. Adams returned to anthropomorphic storytelling in his after novels The Plague Dogs (1977) and Traveller (1988).[32] [33]

By the 21st century, the children'due south flick volume market place had expanded massively.[h] Perhaps a bulk of picture books accept some kind of anthropomorphism,[24] [35] with pop examples existence The Very Hungry Caterpillar (1969) past Eric Carle and The Gruffalo (1999) past Julia Donaldson.

Anthropomorphism in literature and other media led to a sub-civilization known as hirsuite fandom, which promotes and creates stories and artwork involving anthropomorphic animals, and the examination and interpretation of humanity through anthropomorphism. This can often be shortened in searches equally "anthro", used past some equally an alternative term to "furry".[36]

Anthropomorphic characters have also been a staple of the comic book genre. The about prominent ane was Neil Gaiman's the Sandman which had a huge impact on how characters that are physical embodiments are written in the fantasy genre.[37] [38] Other examples besides include the mature Hellblazer (personified political and moral ideas), Fables and its spin-off series Jack of Fables, which was unique for having anthropomorphic representation of literary techniques and genres.[40] Diverse Japanese manga and anime have used anthropomorphism equally the basis of their story. Examples include Squid Girl (anthropomorphized squid), Hetalia: Axis Powers (personified countries), Upotte!! (personified guns), Arpeggio of Blue Steel and Kancolle (personified ships).

In film

Big Buck Bunny is a gratuitous blithe short featuring anthropomorphic characters

Some of the about notable examples are the Walt Disney characters the Magic Carpet from Disney's Aladdin franchise, Mickey Mouse, Donald Duck, Goofy, and Oswald the Lucky Rabbit; the Looney Tunes characters Bugs Bunny, Daffy Duck, and Porky Pig; and an array of others from the 1920s to nowadays twenty-four hour period.

In the Disney/Pixar franchises Cars and Planes, all the characters are anthropomorphic vehicles,[41] while in Toy Story, they are anthropomorphic toys. Other Pixar franchises like Monsters, Inc. features anthropomorphic monsters, and Finding Nemo features anthropomorphic marine life creatures (like fish, sharks, and whales). Discussing anthropomorphic animals from DreamWorks franchise Madagascar, Laurie [ not sequitur ] suggests that "social differences based on conflict and contradiction are naturalized and fabricated less 'contestable' through the classificatory matrix of human and nonhuman relations [ description needed ]".[41] Other DreamWorks franchises like Shrek features fairy tale characters, and Blue Sky Studios of 20th Century Fox franchises like Ice Historic period features anthropomorphic extinct animals.

All of the characters in Walt Disney Animation Studios' Zootopia (2016) are anthropomorphic animals, that is an entirely nonhuman civilization.[42]

The live-action/computer-blithe franchise Alvin and the Chipmunks past 20th Century Flim-flam centers around anthropomorphic talkative and singing chipmunks. The female person singing chipmunks called The Chipettes are as well centered in some of the franchise'southward films.

In idiot box

Since the 1960s, anthropomorphism has too been represented in various animated television shows such as Biker Mice From Mars (1993–1996) and SWAT Kats: The Radical Squadron (1993–1995). Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, first aired in 1987, features 4 pizza-loving anthropomorphic turtles with a nifty knowledge of ninjutsu, led past their anthropomorphic rat sensei, Main Splinter. Nickelodeon'south longest running blithe Boob tube series SpongeBob SquarePants (1999–present), revolves effectually SpongeBob, a yellow bounding main sponge, living in the underwater boondocks of Bikini Bottom with his anthropomorphic marine life friends. Drawing Network'south animated serial The Amazing World of Gumball (2011–2019) are about anthropomorphic animals and inanimate objects. All of the characters in Hasbro Studios' Idiot box series My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic (2010–2019) are anthropomorphic fantasy creatures, with most of them existence ponies living in the pony-inhabited land of Equestria. The Netflix original series Centaurworld focuses on a warhorse who gets transported to a Dr. Seuss-like world full of centaurs who possess the bottom half of whatsoever animal, every bit opposed to the traditional equus caballus.

In the American animated TV series Family Guy, one of the show'due south main characters, Brian, is a canis familiaris. Brian shows many man characteristics – he walks upright, talks, smokes, and drinks Martinis – but too acts similar a normal dog in other ways; for example he cannot resist chasing a ball and barks at the mailman, believing him to be a threat.

The PBS Kids animated series Permit's Go Luna! centers on an anthropomorphic female Moon who speaks, sings, and dances. She comes down out of the heaven to serve as a tutor of international civilisation to the three main characters: a boy frog and wombat and a daughter butterfly, who are supposed to exist preschool children traveling a world populated by anthropomorphic animals with a circus run by their parents.

The French-Belgian blithe series Mush-Mush & the Mushables takes place in a world inhabited past Mushables, which are anthropomrphic fungi, along with other critters such equally beetles, snails, and frogs.

In video games

In Armello, anthropomorphic animals battle for control of the animal kingdom

Sonic the Hedgehog, a video game franchise debuting in 1991, features a speedy blue hedgehog every bit the main protagonist. This series' characters are nearly all anthropomorphic animals such equally foxes, cats, and other hedgehogs who are able to speak and walk on their hind legs like normal humans. As with well-nigh anthropomorphisms of animals, vesture is of little or no importance, where some characters may be fully clothed while some vesture only shoes and gloves.

Another popular instance in video games is the Super Mario serial, debuting in 1985 with Super Mario Bros., of which main antagonist includes a fictional species of anthropomorphic turtle-similar creatures known as Koopas. Other games in the series, too as of other of its greater Mario franchise, spawned similar characters such as Yoshi, Ass Kong and many others.

Fine art history

Claes Oldenburg

Claes Oldenburg'due south soft sculptures are ordinarily described as anthropomorphic. Depicting common household objects, Oldenburg'southward sculptures were considered Pop Art. Reproducing these objects, often at a greater size than the original, Oldenburg created his sculptures out of soft materials. The anthropomorphic qualities of the sculptures were mainly in their sagging and malleable outside which mirrored the not-and then-idealistic forms of the human trunk. In "Soft Calorie-free Switches" Oldenburg creates a household calorie-free switch out of vinyl. The two identical switches, in a dulled orange, insinuate nipples. The soft vinyl references the aging process equally the sculpture wrinkles and sinks with time.

Minimalism

In the essay "Fine art and Objecthood", Michael Fried makes the example that "literalist art" (minimalism) becomes theatrical by means of anthropomorphism. The viewer engages the minimalist work, not as an democratic art object, but as a theatrical interaction. Fried references a conversation in which Tony Smith answers questions about his vi-foot cube, "Die".

Q: Why didn't y'all make information technology larger and so that it would loom over the observer?

A: I was non making a monument.

Q: And so why didn't you lot make information technology smaller so that the observer could run across over the top?

A: I was not making an object.

Fried implies an anthropomorphic connection by means of "a surrogate person – that is, a kind of statue."

The minimalist conclusion of "hollowness" in much of their work was as well considered by Fried to be "blatantly anthropomorphic". This "hollowness" contributes to the idea of a separate inside; an idea mirrored in the human form. Fried considers the Literalist art'southward "hollowness" to be "biomorphic" as information technology references a living organism.[43]

Mail service-minimalism

Curator Lucy Lippard'due south Eccentric Abstraction show, in 1966, sets up Briony Fer'southward writing of a post-minimalist anthropomorphism. Reacting to Fried's estimation of minimalist art'south "looming presence of objects which appear as actors might on a stage", Fer interprets the artists in Eccentric Abstraction to a new class of anthropomorphism. She puts forth the thoughts of Surrealist author Roger Caillois, who speaks of the "spacial lure of the discipline, the way in which the subject could inhabit their environment." Caillous uses the example of an insect who "through camouflage does so in order to become invisible... and loses its distinctness." For Fer, the anthropomorphic qualities of simulated constitute in the erotic, organic sculptures of artists Eva Hesse and Louise Bourgeois, are not necessarily for strictly "mimetic" purposes. Instead, similar the insect, the piece of work must come into existence in the "scopic field... which we cannot view from outside."[44]

Mascots

For branding, merchandising, and representation, figures known as mascots are now oft employed to personify sports teams, corporations, and major events such every bit the World's Fair and the Olympics. These personifications may be simple human or animal figures, such as Ronald McDonald or the donkey that represents the United States's Autonomous Party. Other times, they are anthropomorphic items, such as "Clippy" or the "Michelin Man". Almost oftentimes, they are anthropomorphic animals such as the Energizer Bunny or the San Diego Chicken.

The practice is particularly widespread in Nippon, where cities, regions, and companies all have mascots, collectively known equally yuru-chara. Two of the most popular are Kumamon (a behave who represents Kumamoto Prefecture)[45] and Funassyi (a pear who represents Funabashi, a suburb of Tokyo).[46]

Animals

Other examples of anthropomorphism include the attribution of human traits to animals, particularly domesticated pets such equally dogs and cats. Examples of this include thinking a dog is smile but because it is showing his teeth,[47] or a cat mourns for a dead owner.[48] Anthropomorphism may be benign to the welfare of animals. A 2012 written report by Butterfield et al. constitute that utilizing anthropomorphic language when describing dogs created a greater willingness to help them in situations of distress.[49] Previous studies have shown that individuals who attribute human characteristics to animals are less willing to swallow them,[fifty] and that the degree to which individuals perceive minds in other animals predicts the moral business concern afforded to them.[51] Information technology is possible that anthropomorphism leads humans to like not-humans more when they have apparent homo qualities, since perceived similarity has been shown to increment prosocial behavior toward other humans.[52]

In scientific discipline

In science, the use of anthropomorphic linguistic communication that suggests animals have intentions and emotions has traditionally been deprecated equally indicating a lack of objectivity. Biologists have been warned to avert assumptions that animals share any of the same mental, social, and emotional capacities of humans, and to rely instead on strictly observable testify.[53] In 1927 Ivan Pavlov wrote that animals should be considered "without any need to resort to fantastic speculations as to the existence of any possible subjective states".[54] More than recently, The Oxford companion to animal behaviour (1987) advised that "one is well advised to study the behaviour rather than attempting to get at any underlying emotion".[55] Some scientists, similar William M Wheeler (writing apologetically of his use of anthropomorphism in 1911), have used anthropomorphic linguistic communication in metaphor to make subjects more than humanly comprehensible or memorable.[i]

Despite the touch of Charles Darwin'southward ideas in The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (Konrad Lorenz in 1965 chosen him a "patron saint" of ethology)[57] ethology has generally focused on behavior, not on emotion in animals.[57]

Even insects play together, as has been described past that first-class observer, P. Huber, who saw ants chasing and pretending to bite each other, like and so many puppies.

The written report of great apes in their own environment and in captivity[j] has changed attitudes to anthropomorphism. In the 1960s the iii so-called "Leakey's Angels", Jane Goodall studying chimpanzees, Dian Fossey studying gorillas and Biruté Galdikas studying orangutans, were all accused of "that worst of ethological sins – anthropomorphism".[sixty] The charge was brought about by their descriptions of the great apes in the field; it is now more than widely accepted that empathy has an important office to play in research.

De Waal has written: "To endow animals with human being emotions has long been a scientific taboo. Only if nosotros exercise not, nosotros take a chance missing something fundamental, about both animals and united states of america."[61] Alongside this has come increasing sensation of the linguistic abilities of the smashing apes and the recognition that they are tool-makers and have individuality and culture.[62]

Writing of cats in 1992, veterinary Bruce Fogle points to the fact that "both humans and cats have identical neurochemicals and regions in the encephalon responsible for emotion" as evidence that "information technology is not anthropomorphic to credit cats with emotions such as jealousy".[63]

In computing

In scientific discipline fiction, an artificially-intelligent reckoner or robot, even though it has not been programmed with human emotions, often spontaneously experiences those emotions anyway: for example, Agent Smith in The Matrix was influenced by a "disgust" toward humanity. This is an example of anthropomorphism: in reality, while an artificial intelligence could perhaps exist deliberately programmed with human emotions, or could develop something like to an emotion as a means to an ultimate goal if information technology is useful to practice so, it would not spontaneously develop human emotions for no purpose whatsoever, every bit portrayed in fiction.[64]

1 case of anthropomorphism would be to believe that one's figurer is angry at them because they insulted it; another would be to believe that an intelligent robot would naturally find a woman attractive and be driven to mate with her. Scholars sometimes disagree with each other most whether a particular prediction about an artificial intelligence's behavior is logical, or whether the prediction constitutes illogical anthropomorphism.[64] An instance that might initially be considered anthropomorphism, but is in fact a logical statement virtually an artificial intelligence'due south behavior, would be the Dario Floreano experiments where certain robots spontaneously evolved a crude capacity for "charade", and tricked other robots into eating "poison" and dying: here, a trait, "deception", unremarkably associated with people rather than with machines, spontaneously evolves in a type of convergent development.[65]

The conscious use of anthropomorphic metaphor is not intrinsically unwise; ascribing mental processes to the estimator, under the proper circumstances, may serve the same purpose as it does when humans do it to other people: it may help persons to understand what the computer will practice, how their actions will affect the computer, how to compare computers with humans, and conceivably how to design computer programs. However, inappropriate use of anthropomorphic metaphors can result in fake beliefs about the beliefs of computers, for instance by causing people to overestimate how "flexible" computers are.[66] According to Paul R. Cohen and Edward Feigenbaum, in guild to differentiate between anthropomorphization and logical prediction of AI behavior, "the pull a fast one on is to know plenty about how humans and computers think to say exactly what they have in common, and, when we lack this knowledge, to utilize the comparing to suggest theories of homo thinking or computer thinking."[67]

Computers overturn the childhood hierarchical taxonomy of "stones (not-living) → plants (living) → animals (conscious) → humans (rational)", past introducing a non-homo "actor" that appears to regularly comport rationally. Much of computing terminology derives from anthropomorphic metaphors: computers tin "read", "write", or "take hold of a virus". Information technology presents no clear correspondence with any other entities in the world likewise humans; the options are either to leverage an emotional, imprecise human metaphor, or to turn down imprecise metaphor and make use of more precise, domain-specific technical terms.[66]

People often grant an unnecessary social function to computers during interactions. The underlying causes are debated; Youngme Moon and Clifford Nass propose that humans are emotionally, intellectually and physiologically biased toward social activeness, and and then when presented with even tiny social cues, deeply-infused social responses are triggered automatically.[66] [68] This may allow incorporation of anthropomorphic features into computers/robots to enable more familiar "social" interactions, making them easier to use.[69]

Psychology

Foundational enquiry

In psychology, the beginning empirical study of anthropomorphism was conducted in 1944 past Fritz Heider and Marianne Simmel.[70] In the first part of this experiment, the researchers showed a two-and-a-half minute long blitheness of several shapes moving around on the screen in varying directions at diverse speeds. When subjects were asked to describe what they saw, they gave detailed accounts of the intentions and personalities of the shapes. For case, the large triangle was characterized every bit a bully, chasing the other two shapes until they could play a trick on the large triangle and escape. The researchers ended that when people encounter objects making motions for which at that place is no obvious cause, they view these objects as intentional agents (individuals that deliberately make choices to accomplish goals).

Mod psychologists more often than not characterize anthropomorphism as a cognitive bias. That is, anthropomorphism is a cerebral process past which people use their schemas about other humans as a basis for inferring the properties of non-human entities in social club to make efficient judgements about the environment, even if those inferences are non always accurate.[2] Schemas nearly humans are used as the basis because this knowledge is acquired early in life, is more detailed than noesis about not-homo entities, and is more readily attainable in memory.[71] Anthropomorphism can also function as a strategy to cope with loneliness when other human connections are not bachelor.[72]

Three-cistron theory

Since making inferences requires cognitive effort, anthropomorphism is likely to be triggered only when certain aspects about a person and their surround are true. Psychologist Adam Waytz and his colleagues created a iii-gene theory of anthropomorphism to describe these aspects and predict when people are most likely to anthropomorphize.[71] The three factors are:

  • Elicited agent cognition, or the amount of prior noesis held virtually an object and the extent to which that noesis is chosen to mind.
  • Effectance, or the bulldoze to interact with and understand i's environment.
  • Sociality, the need to institute social connections.

When elicited agent knowledge is low and effectance and sociality are high, people are more likely to anthropomorphize. Diverse dispositional, situational, developmental, and cultural variables can affect these iii factors, such every bit need for noesis, social disconnection, cultural ideologies, uncertainty avoidance, etc.

Developmental perspective

Children announced to anthropomorphize and use egocentric reasoning from an early age and apply it more ofttimes than adults.[73] Examples of this are describing a storm deject as "angry" or drawing flowers with faces. This penchant for anthropomorphism is probable considering children have acquired vast amounts of socialization, but not every bit much experience with specific non-human entities, so thus they accept less developed culling schemas for their environment.[71] In contrast, autistic children tend to describe anthropomorphized objects in purely mechanical terms (that is, in terms of what they do) because they have difficulties with theory of listen.[74]

Effect on learning

Anthropomorphism can be used to assist learning. Specifically, anthropomorphized words[75] and describing scientific concepts with intentionality[76] tin can meliorate later remember of these concepts.

In mental health

In people with depression, social anxiety, or other mental illnesses, emotional support animals are a useful component of handling partially because anthropomorphism of these animals can satisfy the patients' need for social connection.[77]

In marketing

Anthropomorphism of inanimate objects can bear on product buying behavior. When products seem to resemble a human being schema, such as the front of a car resembling a face, potential buyers evaluate that product more positively than if they do not anthropomorphize the object.[78]

People also tend to trust robots to practice more complex tasks such equally driving a car or childcare if the robot resembles humans in ways such as having a face up, voice, and name; mimicking human motions; expressing emotion; and displaying some variability in beliefs.[79] [80]

Prototype gallery

  • A Danish electrical socket - with its two 'eyes' and a 'mouth' (all iii functional parts of the device), forming a pareidolic confront.

Run into as well

  • Aniconism – antithetic concept
  • Animism
  • Anthropic principle
  • Anthropocentrism
  • Anthropology
  • Anthropomorphic maps
  • Anthropopathism
  • Cynocephaly
  • Furry fandom
  • Great Concatenation of Existence
  • Human-animal hybrid
  • Humanoid
  • Moe anthropomorphism
  • National personification
  • Pareidolia – seeing faces in everyday objects
  • Pathetic fallacy
  • Prosopopoeia
  • Speciesism
  • Talking animals in fiction
  • Tashbih
  • Zoomorphism

Notes

  1. ^ Possibly via French anthropomorphisme .[ane]
  2. ^ Anthropomorphism, among divines, the fault of those who ascribe a human effigy to the deity.[4]
  3. ^ In the New York Review of Books, Gardner opined that "I find virtually convincing Mithen'south claim that man intelligence lies in the capacity to brand connections: through using metaphors".[eight]
  4. ^ Many other translations of this passage have Xenophanes state that the Thracians were "blond".
  5. ^ Moses Maimonides quoted Rabbi Abraham Ben David: "It is stated in the Torah and books of the prophets that God has no body, as stated 'Since G-d your God is the god (lit. gods) in the heavens higher up and in the earth beneath" and a torso cannot be in both places. And it was said 'Since you take not seen any prototype' and it was said 'To who would y'all compare me, and I would be equal to them?' and if he was a body, he would exist like the other bodies."[fourteen]
  6. ^ The Victoria and Albert Museum wrote: "Beatrix Potter is still one of the world's best-selling and best-loved children'due south authors. Potter wrote and illustrated a full of 28 books, including the 23 Tales, the 'picayune books' that have been translated into more than 35 languages and sold over 100 million copies."[25]
  7. ^ 150 million sold, a 2007 estimate of copies of the full story sold, whether published as one book, iii, or another configuration.[29]
  8. ^ It is estimated that the United kingdom market for children's books was worth £672m in 2004.[34]
  9. ^ In 1911, Wheeler wrote: "The larval insect is, if I may exist permitted to lapse for a moment into anthropomorphism, a sluggish, greedy, self-centred fauna, while the adult is industrious, abstemious and highly altruistic..."[56]
  10. ^ In 1946, Hebb wrote: "A thoroughgoing endeavor to avert anthropomorphic description in the study of temperament was made over a two-year menstruum at the Yerkes laboratories. All that resulted was an well-nigh countless series of specific acts in which no order or meaning could be plant. On the other paw, by the use of bluntly anthropomorphic concepts of emotion and attitude ane could speedily and easily describe the peculiarities of individual animals... Any the anthropomorphic terminology may seem to imply nigh conscious states in chimpanzee, information technology provides an intelligible and practical guide to beliefs."[59]

References

  1. ^ a b c Oxford English Dictionary, 1st ed. "anthropomorphism, n." Oxford University Press (Oxford), 1885.
  2. ^ a b Hutson, Matthew (2012). The 7 Laws of Magical Thinking: How Irrational Beliefs Keep Us Happy, Healthy, and Sane. New York: Hudson Street Press. pp. 165–81. ISBN978-i-101-55832-iv.
  3. ^ Moss, Stephen (fifteen January 2016). "What you see in this picture says more near y'all than the kangaroo". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 18 September 2019. Retrieved 17 January 2016.
  4. ^ Chambers's Cyclopædia, Supplement, 1753
  5. ^ "Lionheaded Figurine". Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 6 May 2010.
  6. ^ Dalton (1 January 2004). "Löwenmensch Oldest Statue". VNN World. Archived from the original on 25 March 2010.
  7. ^ Mithen 1998.
  8. ^ Gardner, Howard (9 October 1997), "Thinking About Thinking", New York Review of Books, archived from the original on 29 March 2010, retrieved 8 May 2010
  9. ^ "anthropotheism". Ologies & -Isms. The Gale Group, Inc. 2008. Archived from the original on 6 June 2011. Retrieved 23 August 2009.
  10. ^ Fox, James Joseph (1907). "Anthropomorphism". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Cosmic Encyclopedia. Vol. one. New York: Robert Appleton Visitor.
  11. ^ Public DomainChambers, Ephraim, ed. (1728). "Anthropomorphite". Cyclopædia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences (1st ed.). James and John Knapton, et al.
  12. ^ Diels-Kranz, Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, Xenophanes frr. 15–16.
  13. ^ Cloudless of Alexandria, Miscellanies V xiv 109.one–3
  14. ^ Maimonides, Moses, "Fundamentals of Torah, Ch. 1, § viii", Book of Scientific discipline
  15. ^ Virani, Shafique Northward. (2010). "The Right Path: A Post-Mongol Persian Ismaili Treatise". Iranian Studies. 43 (2): 197–221. doi:ten.1080/00210860903541988. ISSN 0021-0862. S2CID 170748666. Archived from the original on xiii August 2021. Retrieved 17 November 2020.
  16. ^ Fowler, Jeanne D. (1997). Hinduism: Beliefs and Practices. Sussex Academic Press. pp. 42–43. ISBN978-1898723608.
  17. ^ Narayan, Thou. M. V. (2007). Flipside of Hindu Symbolism. Fultus. pp. 84–85. ISBN978-1596821170. Archived from the original on thirteen August 2021. Retrieved 8 November 2020.
  18. ^ a b Mitchell, Robert; Thompson, Nicholas; Miles, Lyn (1997). Anthropomorphism, Anecdotes, and Animals . New York: State University of New York Printing. pp. 51. ISBN978-0791431252.
  19. ^ Bailey, Alan; O'Brien, Dan (2014). Hume's Critique of Religion: 'Sick Men'due south Dreams' . Dordrecht: Springer Science+Business Media. p. 172. ISBN9789400766143.
  20. ^ Guthrie, Stewart E. (1995). Faces in the Clouds: A New Theory of Religion. Oxford University Printing. p. 7. ISBN978-0-19-509891-4. Archived from the original on thirteen Baronial 2021. Retrieved viii November 2020.
  21. ^ Armstrong, Susan; Botzler, Richard (2016). The Animal Ethics Reader, third edition. Oxon: Routledge. p. 91. ISBN9781138918009.
  22. ^ a b Philostratus, Flavius (c. 210 CE). The Life of Apollonius Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Auto, 5.14. Translated by F.C. Conybeare. the Loeb Classical Library (1912)
  23. ^ Kwesi Yankah (1983). "The Akan Trickster Wheel: Myth or Folktale?" (PDF). Trinidad Academy of the West Indies. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 December 2008. Retrieved 6 May 2010.
  24. ^ a b "The top fifty children's books". The Telegraph. 22 February 2008. Archived from the original on 6 December 2019. Retrieved 2 April 2018. and Sophie Borland (22 February 2008). "Narnia triumphs over Harry Potter". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 6 Dec 2019. Retrieved 2 April 2018.
  25. ^ "Beatrix Potter", Official website , Victoria and Albert Museum, archived from the original on 23 Feb 2011, retrieved two June 2010
  26. ^ a b Run a risk, Nikki; Yates, Emerge (2008). Exploring Children's Literature. Sage Publications Ltd. ISBN978-1-4129-3013-0.
  27. ^ John Grant and John Clute, The Encyclopedia of Fantasy, p 621, ISBN 0-312-19869-8
  28. ^ 100 million copies sold: BBC Archived 12 May 2011 at the Wayback Automobile: Tolkien's memorabilia go on sale. xviii March 2008
  29. ^ The Toronto Star, 16 Apr 2007, archived from the original on 9 March 2011, retrieved 24 August 2017
  30. ^ Rateliff, John D. (2007). The History of the Hobbit: Return to Bag-finish. London: HarperCollins. p. 654. ISBN978-0-00-723555-1.
  31. ^ Carpenter, Humphrey (1979). The Inklings: C. S. Lewis, J. R. R. Tolkien, Charles Williams and Their Friends . Boston: Houghton Mifflin. p. 43. ISBN978-0-395-27628-0.
  32. ^ Pallardy, Richard (14 January 2016). "Richard Adams". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Chicago, IL: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Archived from the original on 22 April 2016. Retrieved 24 June 2016.
  33. ^ Levy, Keren (19 December 2013). "Watership Downwards by Richard Adams: A tale of courage, loyalty, language". theguardian.com. Archived from the original on 20 August 2016. Retrieved 24 June 2016.
  34. ^ "The Value of the Children's Motion-picture show Book Market place" , 9 November 2005, archived from the original on 9 June 2016 {{commendation}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  35. ^ Ben Myers (ten June 2008). "Why we're all animal lovers". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 18 January 2017. Retrieved eleven December 2016.
  36. ^ Patten, Fred (2006). Hirsuite! The World'due south All-time Anthropomorphic Fiction. ibooks. pp. 427–436. ISBN978-1-59687-319-3.
  37. ^ Buxton, Marc (xxx October 2013). "The Sandman: The Essential Horror Comic of the Nineties". Den of Geek. Archived from the original on 3 Nov 2013.
  38. ^ Buxton, Marc (26 Jan 2014). "By Crom! The 10 Greatest Fantasy Comics of All-Time". Comic Book Resource. Archived from the original on 9 April 2014. Archive requires scrolldown
  39. ^ Doctorow, Cory (25 March 2010). "Great Fables Crossover: Fables goes even more than meta, stays just as rollicking". Boing. Archived from the original on 2 March 2016. Retrieved 22 February 2016.
  40. ^ a b Laurie, Timothy (2015), "Becoming-Creature Is A Trap For Humans", Deleuze and the Non-Human, archived from the original on thirteen Baronial 2021, retrieved 23 June 2015 eds. Hannah Stark and Jon Roffe.
  41. ^ McNary, Dave (11 June 2015). "Watch: Disney's 'Zootopia' Trailer Introduces Animal-Run Globe". Diversity. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 18 June 2016.
  42. ^ Fried, Michael (1998). Fine art and Objecthood. Chicago: Academy of Chicago Press. ISBN978-0-226-26319-nine.
  43. ^ Fer, Briony (1999). "Objects Beyond Objecthood". Oxford Art Journal. 22 (2): 25–36. doi:10.1093/oxartj/22.two.25.
  44. ^ Official website , archived from the original on xx April 2021, retrieved 9 August 2015 . (in Japanese)
  45. ^ Official website , archived from the original on seven Jan 2014, retrieved ix Baronial 2015 . (in Japanese)
  46. ^ Woods, John (28 September 2018). "Do Dogs Really Grin? The Science Explained". AllThingsDogs. Archived from the original on eleven April 2021. Retrieved 18 March 2021.
  47. ^ Filion, Daniel. "Anthropomorphism: when nosotros love our pets too much". Educator. Archived from the original on 4 March 2021. Retrieved eighteen March 2021.
  48. ^ Butterfield, G. E.; Hill, S. E.; Lord, C. G. (2012). "Mangy mutt or furry friend? Anthropomorphism promotes animal welfare". Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 48 (4): 957–960. doi:x.1016/j.jesp.2012.02.010.
  49. ^ Bastian, B.; Loughnan, S.; Haslam, N.; Radke, H. R. (2012). "Don't mind meat? The deprival of mind to animals used for human consumption". Personality and Social Psychology Message. 38 (2): 247–256. doi:10.1177/0146167211424291. PMID 21980158. S2CID 22757046.
  50. ^ Gray, H. M.; Gray, Grand.; Wegner, D. M. (2007). "Dimensions of Mind Perception". Scientific discipline. 315 (5812): 619. Bibcode:2007Sci...315..619G. doi:10.1126/science.1134475. PMID 17272713. S2CID 31773170.
  51. ^ Burger, J. M.; Messian, North.; Patel, South.; del Prado, A.; Anderson, C. (2004). "What a coincidence! The effects of incidental similarity on compliance". Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. xxx (1): 35–43. doi:ten.1177/0146167203258838. PMID 15030641. S2CID 2109021.
  52. ^ Shapiro, Kenneth J. (1993). "Editor's Introduction to Society and Animals". Lodge & Animals. i (1): 1–4. doi:ten.1163/156853093X00091. Afterwards re-published as an introduction to: Flynn, Cliff (2008). Social Creatures: A Human and Animal Studies Reader. Lantern Books. ISBN978-i-59056-123-2. Archived from the original on 18 May 2019. Retrieved 24 August 2017.
  53. ^ Ryder, Richard. Animal Revolution: Changing Attitudes Towards Speciesism. Berg, 2000, p. 6.
  54. ^ Masson & McCarthy 1996, p. xviii.
  55. ^ Wheeler, William Morton (Nov 1911), "Insect parasitism and its peculiarities", Popular Science, Vol. 79 , p. 443
  56. ^ a b Black, J (June 2002). "Darwin in the world of emotions". Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. 95 (6): 311–3. doi:x.1258/jrsm.95.6.311. ISSN 0141-0768. PMC1279921. PMID 12042386.
  57. ^ Darwin, Charles (1871). The Descent of Man (1st ed.). p. 39. Archived from the original on 12 July 2011. Retrieved six May 2010.
  58. ^ Hebb, Donald O. (1946), "Emotion in man and animal: An analysis of the intuitive processes of recognition", Psychological Review, 53 (2): 88–106, doi:10.1037/h0063033, PMID 21023321
  59. ^ Masson & McCarthy 1996, p. 9
  60. ^ Frans de Waal (1997-07). "Are We in Anthropodenial?" Archived 2 December 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Discover. pp. 50–53.
  61. ^ Whiten, Andrew (25 July 2017). "Civilisation extends the scope of evolutionary biology in the great apes". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 114 (30): 7790–7797. doi:x.1073/pnas.1620733114. PMC5544264. PMID 28739927.
  62. ^ Fogle, Bruce (1992). If Your Cat Could Talk. London: Dorling Kindersley. p. 11. ISBN9781405319867. Archived from the original on thirteen Baronial 2021. Retrieved viii November 2020.
  63. ^ a b Yudkowsky, Eliezer. "Artificial intelligence as a positive and negative cistron in global gamble." Archived two March 2013 at the Wayback Auto Global catastrophic risks (2008).
  64. ^ "Real-Life Decepticons: Robots Learn to Crook". Wired mag. 18 August 2009. Archived from the original on seven February 2016. Retrieved 7 February 2016.
  65. ^ a b c Marakas, George K.; Johnson, Richard D.; Palmer, Jonathan Westward. (April 2000). "A theoretical model of differential social attributions toward computing technology: when the metaphor becomes the model". International Periodical of Human being-Computer Studies. 52 (4): 719–750. doi:10.1006/ijhc.1999.0348.
  66. ^ Cohen, Paul R., and Edward A. Feigenbaum, eds. The handbook of bogus intelligence. Vol. three. Butterworth-Heinemann, 2014.
  67. ^ Moon, Youngme, and Clifford Nass. "How 'existent' are computer personalities? Psychological responses to personality types in human-computer interaction." Advice enquiry 23.half dozen (1996): 651–674.
  68. ^ Duffy, Brian R. (March 2003). "Anthropomorphism and the social robot". Robotics and Autonomous Systems. 42 (3–iv): 177–190. CiteSeerX10.i.1.59.9969. doi:10.1016/S0921-8890(02)00374-three.
  69. ^ "Fritz Heider & Marianne Simmel: An Experimental Study of Apparent Beliefs". Psychology. Archived from the original on 10 December 2015. Retrieved 16 Nov 2015.
  70. ^ a b c Epley, Nicholas; Waytz, Adam; Cacioppo, John T. (2007). "On seeing man: A three-factor theory of anthropomorphism". Psychological Review. 114 (4): 864–886. CiteSeerX10.1.ane.457.4031. doi:ten.1037/0033-295x.114.four.864. PMID 17907867.
  71. ^ Waytz, Adam (2013). "Social Connection and Seeing Human – Oxford Handbooks". The Oxford Handbook of Social Exclusion. doi:ten.1093/oxfordhb/9780195398700.013.0023. ISBN978-0-19-539870-0. Archived from the original on 17 November 2015. Retrieved 16 November 2015.
  72. ^ Piaget, Jean (1929). The Child'southward Conception of the Globe: A 20th-Century Classic of Child Psychology. New York, NY: Routledge. ISBN978-0-415-16887-viii.
  73. ^ Castelli, Fulvia; Frith, Chris; Happé, Francesca; Frith, Uta (one August 2002). "Autism, Asperger syndrome and brain mechanisms for the attribution of mental states to animated shapes". Brain. 125 (8): 1839–1849. doi:ten.1093/brain/awf189. ISSN 0006-8950. PMID 12135974.
  74. ^ Blanchard, Jay; Mcnincth, George (1 November 1984). "The Effects of Anthropomorphism on Word Learning". The Journal of Educational Enquiry. 78 (2): 105–110. doi:10.1080/00220671.1984.10885582. ISSN 0022-0671.
  75. ^ Dorion, K. (2011) "A Learner's Tactic: How Secondary Students' Anthropomorphic Linguistic communication may Back up Learning of Abstract Scientific discipline Concepts" Archived eighteen June 2020 at the Wayback Machine. Electronic Journal of Science Education. Vol. 12, No. 2.
  76. ^ Cusack, Odean (2013). Pets and Mental Health. Binghamton, NY: Routledge. ISBN978-0-86656-652-0.
  77. ^ Aggarwal, Pankaj; McGill, Ann L. (1 December 2007). "Is That Automobile Smiling at Me? Schema Congruity equally a Basis for Evaluating Anthropomorphized Products". Periodical of Consumer Enquiry. 34 (4): 468–479. CiteSeerX10.ane.1.330.9068. doi:10.1086/518544. ISSN 0093-5301.
  78. ^ Waytz, Adam; Norton, Michael. "How to Make Robots Seem Less Creepy". Wall Street Periodical. ISSN 0099-9660. Archived from the original on 14 November 2015. Retrieved xvi Nov 2015.
  79. ^ Waytz, Adam (thirteen May 2014). "Seeing Human being". Slate. ISSN 1091-2339. Archived from the original on 17 November 2015. Retrieved sixteen November 2015.

Sources

  • Masson, Jeffrey Moussaieff; McCarthy, Susan (1996). When Elephants Weep: Emotional Lives of Animals. Vintage. p. 272. ISBN978-0-09-947891-i.

Farther reading

  • Baynes, T. S., ed. (1878). "Anthropomorphism". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 2 (9th ed.). New York: Charles Scribner'southward Sons. pp. 123–124.
  • Mackintosh, Robert (1911). "Anthropomorphism". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. ii (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 120.
  • Kennedy, John S. (1992). The New Anthropomorphism. Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-42267-3.
  • Mithen, Steven (1998). The Prehistory Of The Mind: A Search for the Origins of Fine art, Religion and Science. Phoenix. p. 480. Bibcode:1996pmso.book.....G. ISBN978-0-7538-0204-5.

External links

  • "Anthropomorphism" entry in the Encyclopedia of Human-Beast Relationships (Horowitz A., 2007)
  • "Anthropomorphism" entry in the Encyclopedia of Astrobiology, Astronomy, and Spaceflight
  • "Anthropomorphism" in mid-century American impress advertising. Collection at The Gallery of Graphic Design.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropomorphism

Posted by: whatleyephimagent.blogspot.com

0 Response to "What Is It Called When You Compare Something To An Animal"

Post a Comment

Subscribe to: Post Comments (Atom)

Iklan Atas Artikel

Iklan Tengah Artikel 1

Iklan Tengah Artikel 2

Iklan Bawah Artikel